WHAT ARE WE PROTECTING CHILDREN AGAINST?

The following examples are ways in which children may be abused or harmed, either within or out with sport.

Child Abuse

In Scotland child abuse is defined as follows:

‘Children may be in need of protection where their basic needs are not being met, in a manner appropriate to their age and stage of development, and they will be at risk through avoidable acts of commission or omission on the part of their parent(s), sibling(s) or other relative(s), or a carer (i.e. the person while not a parent who has actual custody of the child).’[1]

This definition includes placing children at risk through something a person has done to them or something a person is failing to do for them.  For those working in the field of child care and protection the definition gets broken down further into categories of abuse, namely;

• Emotional Abuse;
• Physical Injury;
• Physical Neglect;
• Sexual Abuse;
• Non-organic Failure to Thrive[2]
  

These categories are not mutually exclusive, for example, a child experiencing physical abuse is undoubtedly experiencing emotional abuse as well.  The following definitions of the different types of child abuse are taken from Protecting Children - A Shared Responsibility, Guidance on Inter-agency co-operation (Scottish Office, 1998).

Identifying Child Abuse

Although the physical and behavioural signs listed may be symptomatic of abuse, they may not always be an indicator and, conversely, children experiencing abuse may not demonstrate any of these signs.  Child abuse is often difficult to recognise.  It is not the responsibility of anyone involved in sport to decide whether or not a child has been abused.  This is the role of trained professionals.  We all however, have a duty to act on any concerns about abuse.

Children and Young People with a Learning or Physical Disability

Research[3] tells us that children and young people who have a learning or physical disability are more vulnerable to abuse.  This is because:

• they are often dependent on a number of people for care and handling, some of which can be of an intimate nature;
• they may be unable to understand the inappropriateness of the actions or communicate to others that something is wrong;
• signs of abuse can be misinterpreted as a symptom of the disability;
• like other children they are fearful of the consequences of disclosing abuse;
• attitudes and assumptions that children with disabilities are not abused;
• they may be unable to resist abuse due to physical impairment;
• of negative attitudes towards children with disabilities;
• possible failures to recognise the impact of abuse on children with disabilities.
  

Particular care should be taken by all staff and volunteers when with working with children affected by disability.

EMOTIONAL ABUSE

“failure to provide for a child’s basic emotional needs such as to have a severe effect on the behaviour and development of the child”

This could include making a child feel worthless or unloved, inadequate or not valued; inappropriate expectations being imposed on children for their age or stage of development; the corruption or exploitation of a child, or causing them frequently to feel frightened or in danger; persistent exposure to domestic abuse; failing to provide a child with love, care and affection.

Examples of Emotional Abuse in Sport;

• Persistent failure to show any respect to a child e.g. continually ignoring a child;
• Constantly humiliating a child by telling them they are useless;
• Continually being aggressive towards a child making them feel frightened;
• Acting in a way which is detrimental to the child’s self-esteem.

Signs which may raise concerns about emotional abuse include:

• low self-esteem;
• significant decline in conentration;
• running away;
• indiscriminate friendlieness and neediness;
• extremes of passivity or agression;
• self-harm or mutilation.

PHYSICAL INJURY

“actual or attempted physical injury to a child, including the administration of toxic substances, where there is knowledge or reasonable suspicion, that the injury was inflicted or knowingly not prevented"

This could include deliberately hitting, shaking, throwing, poisoning, burning, drowning, suffocating or otherwise harming a child.  Physical injury may also occur where someone knowingly fails to take action to protect a child from physical harm.

Most children sustain accidental cuts and bruises throughout childhood.  These are likely to occur in parts of the body like elbows, shins and knees.  An important indicator of physical abuse is where the bruises or injuries are unexplained or the explanation does not fit the injury or the injury appears on parts of the body where accidental injuries are unlikely e.g. on the cheeks or thighs.  The age of the child must also be considered.  It is possible that some injuries may have occurred for other reasons e.g. skin disorders, rare bone diseases.

Physical injury may also be caused when a parent feigns the symptoms of or deliberately causes ill health to a child whom they are looking after.  This is known as Fabricated Fictitious Syndrome by Proxy.  A parent may do this because they need or enjoy the attention they receive through having a sick child.

Examples of Physical Abuse in Sport

Bodily harm that may be caused by:

• over training or dangerous training of athletes;
• over playing an athlete;
• failure to do a risk assessment of physical limits or pre-existing medical conditions;
• administering, condoning or failure to intervene in drug use;

Signs which may raise concerns about physical abuse include:

• refusal to discuss injuries;
• aggression towards others;
• improbable excuses given to explain injuries;
• fear of parents being approached for an explanation;
• running away;
• untreated injuries;
• excessive physical punishment;
• avoiding activities due to injuries or possibility of injuries being discovered;
• unexplained injuries, particularly if recurrent
  

PHYSICAL NEGLECT

“This occurs where a child’s essential needs are not met and this is likely to cause impairment to physical health and development. Such needs include food, clothing, cleanliness, shelter and warmth. A lack of appropriate care, including deprivation of access to health care, may result in persistent or severe exposure, through negligence, to circumstances which endanger the child”

As well as being the result of a deliberate act, neglect can also be caused through the omission or the failure to act or protect e.g. the failure to obtain medical attention for a child.

Examples of Physical Neglect in Sport;

• exposing a child to extreme weather conditions e.g. heat and cold.
  
• failing to seek medical attention for injuries.
  
• exposing a child to risk of injury through the use of unsafe equipment.
  
• exposing a child to a hazardous environment without a proper risk assessment of the activity.
  
• failing to provide adequate nutrition and water.

Signs which may raise concerns about physical neglect include:

• constant hunger
• poor personal hygiene and/or poor state of clothing
• constant tiredness
• frequent lateness or unexplained non-attendance (particularly at school)
• untreated medical problems
• low self-esteem
• poor peer relationships
• stealing
  

SEXUAL ABUSE

“Any child may be deemed to have been sexually abused when any person(s), by design or neglect, exploits the child, directly or indirectly, in any activity intended to lead to the sexual arousal or other forms of gratification of that person or other person(s) including organised networks. This definition holds whether or not there has been genital contact and whether or not the child is said to have initiated or consented to, the behaviour”.

This includes forcing or enticing a child to take part in sexual activities whether or not they are aware of or consent to what is happening.  Sexual abuse may involve physical contact, and non-contact acts such as forcing children to look at or be involved in the production of pornographic material, to watch sexual activities or encouraging them to behave in sexually inappropriate ways.  Some of the aforementioned activities can occur through the internet.  Boys and girls are sexually abused by males and females, including persons to whom they are and are not related and by other young people.  This includes people from all walks of life.

Some children may never be able to tell someone they have been sexually abused.  Changes in a child’s behaviour may be a sign something has happened.  In some cases there may be no physical or behavioural signs to suggest that a child has been sexually abused.

Examples of Sexual Abuse in Sport;

• exposure to sexually explicit inappropriate language or jokes.
• showing a child pornographic material or using a child to produce such material.
• inappropriate touching.
• sexual intercourse and/or sexual activity with a child under 16.

The following signs may raise concerns about sexual abuse:

• lack of trust in adults or over familiarity with adults, fear of a particular adult
  
• social isolation – being withdrawn or introverted, poor peer relationship
  
• sleep disturbance (nightmares, bed-wetting, fear of sleeping alone)
  
• running away from home
  
• girls taking over the mothering role
  
• school problems e.g. falling standards, truancy
  
• reluctance or refusal to participate in physical activity or to change clothes for games
  
• low self-esteem
  
• drug, alcohol or solvent abuse
  
• display of sexual knowledge beyond the child’s age
  
• sexual promiscuity, over-sexualised behaviour, compulsive masturbation
  
• eating disorders
  
• unusual interest in the genitals of adults, children or animals
  
• anxiety, depression, self-harm/mutilation, suicide attempts
  
• bruises, scratches, bite marks to the thighs or genital areas
  
• pregnancy
  
• discomfort/difficulty in walking or sitting
  
• fear of medical examinations
  
• urinary tract problems, vaginal infections or genital damage
  
• genital odour, venereal /sexually transmitted diseases
  
• stained underwear, soiling or wetting
  
• itchiness, soreness, discharge, unexplained bleeding from the rectum, vagina or penis
  
• fear of bathrooms, showers, closed doors
  
• abnormal sexual drawings
  
• having irrational fears
  
• developmental regression/acting younger than their age
  
• psychosomatic factors e.g. recurrent abdominal or headache pain
  
• “Grooming” including over the internet.

BULLYING

Bullying may be seen as particularly hurtful behaviour, usually repeated over a period of time, where it is difficult for those being bullied to defend themselves.  It can take many forms including children being bullied by adults, their peers and in some cases by members of their families.  Bullying can be difficult to identify because it often happens away from others and those who are bullied often do not tell anyone.  Bullying is a significant issue for children and has been the main reason for calls to ChildLine for the last eight consecutive years.

Examples of Bullying in Sport

• physical e.g. theft, hitting, kicking (in some cases, this might constitute an assault).
  
• verbal (including teasing) e.g. racist or sectarian remarks, spreading rumours, threats or name-calling, ridicule or humiliation.
  
• emotional e.g. isolating a child from the activities or social acceptance of the peer group.
  
• harassment e.g. using abusive or insulting behaviour in a manner intended to cause alarm or distress.
  

Signs which may raise concerns about bullying include:

• hesitation or reluctance to come to attend training or activity
  
• often last one picked for a team or group activity for no apparent reason, or being picked on when they think your back is turned
  
• reluctance to go to certain places or work with a certain individual
  
• clothing or personal possessions go missing or get damaged
  
• bruising or other injuries
  
• ‘losing’ pocket money repeatedly
  
• becoming nervous and withdrawn
  
• suddenly prone to lashing out at people, either physically or verbally, when normally quiet

RACISM

Children from British minority ethnic communities (and their parents) may have experienced harassment, racial discrimination, and institutional racism.  Although not formally recognised as a form of child abuse, racism can be emotionally harmfully to children.  Some racist acts also involve acts of physical violence towards individuals or groups.  All organisations working with children, including those where British minority ethnic communities are numerically small, should address institutional racism.

HARASSMENT

An essential characteristic of harassment is that it is unwanted by the recipient. It is for individuals to determine what behaviour is acceptable to him or her and what they regard as offensive.  Children may experience harassment or negative discrimination because of their race or ethnic origin, socio-economic status, culture, age, disability, gender, sexuality or religious beliefs. This can have a detrimental effect on a child.

GUIDELINES FOR MANAGING BULLYING

Bullying may be seen as particularly hurtful behaviour usually repeated over a period of time, where it is difficult for those bullied to defend themselves. Bullying can take many forms including:

• Physical e.g. hitting, kicking, theft
  
• Verbal (including teasing) e.g. racist remarks, spreading rumours, threats or name-calling
  
• Emotional e.g. isolating a child from the activities or social acceptance of the peer group
  
• Harassment e.g. using abusive or insulting behaviour in a manner intended to cause alarm or distress.
  
• Children may be bullied by adults, their peers and in some cases by their families.

Action to Help the Victim(s)and Prevent Bullying:

• Take all signs of bullying very seriously.
  
• Encourage all children to speak and share their concerns. Help the victim(s) to speak out and tell the person in charge or someone in authority. Create an open environment.
  
• Take all allegations seriously and take action to ensure the victim(s) is safe. Speak with the victim and the bully(ies) separately.
  
• Reassure the victim(s) that you can be trusted and will help them, although you cannot promise to tell no-one else.
  
• Keep records of what is said i.e. what happened, by whom and when.
  
• Report any concerns to the person in charge at the organisation where the bullying is occurring.

Action towards the Bully(ies):

• Talk with the bully(ies), explain the situation and try to get the bully(ies) to understand the consequences of their behaviour.
  
• Seek an apology from the bully to the victim(s).
  
• Inform the bully's parents/guardians.
  
• If appropriate, insist on the return of 'borrowed' items and that the bully(ies) compensates the victim.
  
• Impose sanctions as necessary.
  
• Encourage and support the bully(ies) to change behaviour
  
• Keep a written record of action taken.
  

[1] Protecting Children- A Shared Responsibility. A Guidance on Interagency Co-operation (The Scottish Office, 1998)

[2] Children who significantly fail to reach normal growth and developmental milestones where physical and genetic reasons have been medically eliminated and a diagnosis of non-organic failure to thrive has been established.

[3] “It doesn’t happen to disabled children” Child protection and Disabled Children, NSPCC (2003)